Virtual Reality (VR) can support effective and scalable training of psychomotor skills in manufacturing. However, many industry training modules offer experiences that are close-ended and do not allow for human error. We aim to address this gap in VR training tools for psychomotor skills training by exploring an open-ended approach to the system design. We designed a VR training simulation prototype to perform open-ended practice of drilling using a 3-axis milling machine. The simulation employs near "end-to-end" instruction through a safety module, a setup and drilling tutorial, open-ended practice complete with warnings of mistakes and failures, and a function to assess the geometries and locations of drilled holes against an engineering drawing. We developed and conducted a user study within an undergraduate-level introductory fabrication course to investigate the impact of open-ended VR practice on learning outcomes. Study results reveal positive trends, with the VR group successfully completing the machining task of drilling at a higher rate (75% vs 64%), with fewer mistakes (1.75 vs 2.14 score), and in less time (17.67 mins vs 21.57 mins) compared to the control group. We discuss our findings and limitations and implications for the design of open-ended VR training systems for learning psychomotor skills.

翻译：虚拟现实技术可支持制造业中精神运动技能的高效、可扩展训练。然而，当前许多工业培训模块仅提供封闭式体验，无法容忍操作误差。为填补这一领域在精神运动技能训练中的空白，本研究探索采用开放式系统设计方法。我们构建了基于三轴铣床进行开放式钻削训练的虚拟现实仿真原型系统。该仿真系统通过安全模块、装夹与钻削教程、包含错误与故障预警的开放式练习模块，以及基于工程图纸评估钻孔几何参数与位置的功能，实现了近乎"端到端"的完整教学流程。我们在本科层次制造入门课程中开展用户研究，考察开放式虚拟现实练习对学习成效的影响。研究结果表明积极趋势：相比于对照组，虚拟现实组以更高成功率（75% vs 64%）、更少失误（1.75分 vs 2.14分）及更短时间（17.67分钟 vs 21.57分钟）完成钻削加工任务。本文讨论了研究发现及其局限性，并阐述了面向精神运动技能学习的开放式虚拟现实训练系统的设计启示。