We present thermopneumatic pixels (TPPs), which are tactile actuators designed for rapid fabrication and straightforward integration into compact wearable and surface-based haptic systems. Each TPP converts low-voltage ($\sim$10 V) electrical pulses into transient pressure increases within a sealed cavity, producing out-of-plane forces and displacements suitable for tactile stimulation. The architecture enables scalable fabrication and spatially distributed actuation while maintaining simple electrical interfacing. The TPPs are constructed from inexpensive, readily available materials using straightforward layer-based assembly, facilitating rapid prototyping and integration into interactive devices. Mechanical characterization demonstrates peak forces exceeding 1 N and millimeter displacements. We further present driving electronics for operating multiple TPP modules concurrently and report perceptual study results demonstrating the effectiveness of the resulting tactile feedback. Together, these results establish low-voltage thermopneumatic actuation as an accessible and high-performance approach for embedding tactile feedback into experimental and consumer-facing interfaces.

翻译：本文提出热致动像素（TPPs），这是一种专为快速制造并易于集成至紧凑型可穿戴及基于表面的触觉系统而设计的触觉致动器。每个TPP将低电压（$\sim$10 V）电脉冲转化为密封腔体内的瞬态压力升高，从而产生适用于触觉刺激的平面外作用力与位移。该架构支持可扩展制造与空间分布式致动，同时保持简单的电气接口。TPPs采用低成本、易获取的材料，通过直接的层叠组装工艺构建，有利于快速原型制作及集成到交互设备中。力学特性测试表明其峰值作用力超过1 N，位移达毫米级。我们进一步提出了用于同时驱动多个TPP模块的电子驱动方案，并报告了感知研究结果，证实了所产生触觉反馈的有效性。综上，这些研究成果确立了低电压热致动技术作为一种易于实现且高性能的触觉反馈嵌入方案，适用于实验性与消费级交互界面。